Consuming Salt Assignment

Salt is made up of 40 percent sodium and 60 percent of chloride, is a very important part of daily lives as it helps maintain your blood’s water content, balances acids and bases in your blood, and it helps in the movement of electrical charges which are in your nerves throughout your muscles. A human being should consume about 2400 mg of salt daily. On average, humans tend to go over the recommended amount. The food industry adds 75 percent of the sodium that we humans consume. The following additives resemble plenty of sodium: color developer, which assists in the colour development in meats.Fermentation controller, which does the organic check in cheeses and baked goods. Binder, which helps to hold the meat together when being cooked. Texture aid, allows dough to expand and prevents from tearing apart. Salt is a part of the food processing. Only way to reduce your intake on dietary salt is to purchase low salt processed foods and switch from processed foods to fresh foods. Look for sodium free, very low sodium, reduced sodium or unsalted terms on the food labels of the food your purchase. You could also try avoiding food items which contain more than 180 milligrams of sodium.Another strategy to avoid dietary salt intake is look out for these food products. Example, bacon, cheese, canned vegetables, anchovies, cooking sauces, gravy, salad dressings, hot dogs, ham, sea salt, soy sauce etc. These edibles contain high amounts of sodium in them and humans should try avoiding them as much as possible. However, manufacturers have tend to lower the amount of sodium inside these edibles, so there is a possibility of finding these food products in low salt form. Always make sure to check the food label when buying any food product so that way you are aware of what you are consuming.There is also another way to approach food when it comes down to lowering your salt intake. For instance, you could go on a low sodium diet. Instead of avoiding high sodium foods you can make few adjustments. You could cook herbs, spices, fruit juices, and vinegars for flavour rather than salt. Eat fresh vegetables, use less salt than the recipe calls for, and choose low salt frozen dinners. When eating outside, ask for your food to be prepared with only a little salt. There are five unique and healthy ways alternatives to salt.It is important to know how much salt you’re consuming because consuming too much could lead to high blood pressure and other serious health issues. Sesame is an alternative to salt and it could be added in your food because of the taste similarity to salt. It is a natural product and could be used on your bread, salad, chicken and vegetables. You should choose sesame over salt because it is made naturally and it adds a lot of flavour to your food without having to worry about the health risks. Another alternative is garlic.This is very beneficial to your health and is said to be an antioxidant if eaten in small amounts and can he lp get rid of colds and congestion. It is mostly added to chicken, salad, bread, and fish to give good flavour. It is also good for your heart and body. It is recommended that you pick fresh garlic over the powder form because the health benefits are stronger in the fresh garlic. Cumin is also a very beneficial alternative to salt because it resembles a lot of properties of antioxidants and it helps maintain a healthier immune system. Cumin has a similar taste to salt but the smell and the texture are very much different.

Girl with green eyes Essay

It hardly needs a commentary that a movie â€Å"Girl with green eyes† is not just a standard drama which tells a story of unhappy love. It would be no exaggeration to stress that it is a great masterpiece of cinematography.   â€Å"Girl with green eyes† was released in 1964 and it was an innovation introduced by the debutant director Desmond Davis. He not only narrated a story, common to the 60s, about a rural girl who has a burning ambition to conquer the city, but made a deep plunge into the characters of his main heroes.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     The film is based on Edna O’Brien’s novella â€Å"The Lonely Girl† and is a tender, touching and humorous little drama of a lonely Irish girl. It is about Kate Brady (starring Rita Tushingham), a naà ¯ve, insecure young girl who lives on the family farm in Dublin. The girl wants to escape from this country convent and run away into a big city and change her life. She rooms with another girl Baba Brenan (Lynn Redgrave) who is a lot different than Kate. Heroine appears to be a quite and reserved young lady.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The character of Kate in this movie is very complex. In the beginning of it she is a gawky rural girl from the catholic family with high morals. However, she has a strong urge to enter the modern world. The 60’s epoch is shown in the movie and Kate and her friend   are trying to become a part of it, they go out to the rock n roll clubs and date with boys. Even though Kate used to be very shy back at home now she grows up into another person. The friends meet a middle aged writer Eugene Gaillard (Peter Finch). Kate and Eugene start going out. For Kate it seems like her dream is going to come true. They start to live together and at first Kate cherishes every moment they have together. She believes in miracles and hopes that it is hers. She makes the first step in their relationship with Eugene. She invites him for tea. That’s where everything started from. The scenes where Kate attempts to attract Eugene’s attention are among the best in this movie. It looks very cute when the immature girl, assisted by her friend, tries to get acquainted with an older man. And then their first affected endeavor of love-making, their fulfillment of a simply necessary love and then the tensions of possessiveness and boredom that this fulfillment brings.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   As director, Desmond Davis is a very talented professional. He was especially good at making the scenes, where Kate is growing up. He shows how her facial expression, speech and mood change. When she arrived in the city her clothes were provincial. With every episode we witness some outside transformations as well as the inside transformations. Director brilliantly shows the alteration of her character. Simple provincial naive girl grows into a young woman with complicated feelings. When she meets Eugene, we definitely know she’s childish (in positive sense of this word). Her looks express her fidelity, love and tenderness to her, so to say, master. However, later the changes on Kate’s face are noticeable in every episode, when she talks with Eugene. Her lovely smile appears less and less. Operator zooms in her look in every single tickler.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Kate’s family finds out by an anonymous letter that she has an affair with a married man. Her father comes to Kate’s work and tries to persuade Kate to return home, she shows real firmness of her intensions and refuses to leave Eugene. That is the part, where she acts not like a childish girl, but as a serious woman. In this scene, she is confident and certain of her deeds, even though she was going against her father’s will and resisting the catholic duties. We can notice how Kate fights inside of her soul with all these factors and tries to find the right answer.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   After the â€Å"honey moon† period some friction appears in Kate and Eugene’s relationship. The film was shot in the way, for the audience to deep in Kate’s thoughts along with her and it seems like they are real. Everything around freezes, dies down, when she recalls her home. Director shows peace around in moments like this. But there is reality and it all finally comes to the end when Eugene’s wife reappears and the couple is forced to confront the reality of what is left of their relationship. She leaves him and heads for London.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   This movie became such a success mainly because of an artful performance of Rita Tushingham, the leading actress. She was so fluent with her facial expressions and her every move and gesture made sense. It seems that she became this volatile girl, full of controversy, where aggression meets with generosity and selfishness with honesty and hope. This film is full of emotions and impressions. That’s what makes it so bright and colorful, even though it is a black-and-white picture. Sources: Crowthersley, 1964, http://movies2.nytimes.com/mem/movies/review Desmond Davis, dir., Girl with green eyes, Lopert Pictures, 1964   

What are acid rains?

What are acid rains? â€Å"Acid rain is another side-effect of civilization. As soon as acid rain was discovered and understood, it was attributed to human action.† (Jurgen Stock, Arthur R. Upgren, p.4)Acid rain can be called any atmospheric precipitate (rain, snow, smog, rain with snows, etc) which has the following characteristics: the increased level of acids (mainly sulphuric acid); and the hydrogenous index of pH is less than average index of rain water (average pH for rain water is 5.6), mainly it is rain with pH

Mystical Encounters Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words - 1

Mystical Encounters - Essay Example It is an effort of persons achieve perfect knowledge and gain ultimate knowledge and communion with the Supreme Being, through personal encounter with the supernatural being. The major concern of mystic is attaining realization of a union and submission to the Supreme Being. It is essential to note that the mystics in one way or the other affect individuals and communities as a whole, in the effort of attaining their goals by shaping character. This experience changes how a person view life and what they affect them as individuals or a group, thus the experience is more of personal. It can thus challenge the communal goals because, through it, individuals forming the commune obtain their character, experiences and belief. The religious belief, which the community abides by, reflects itself through the action of that community, what they encounter through the belief of the divine nature, thus mystical encounters. Mystical encounters involve any occurrence with a being without physical forms; these beings manifest it in different forms. They are normally inhuman or human forms, they maybe in the form of rocks, animals and tree spirits, which have extraordinary abilities to act differently under different situations. There are different types of mystical encounters experience by a believer these include prophetic dreams, apparitional manifestations, transfigurations, premonitions, automatic writing, spirit journey, instantaneous healing miracles among others (Dan 120). The believers of these mystics cannot explain how things happen; it is beyond human ability and understanding. The belief that the main purpose of mystics is to help its believers and followers understand how to act and approach issues accordingly. Failure to abide to the rules and regulation of mystic may lead to discrimination from the group, as it is a sign of rebellion and

Amazons Business Model and the Operational Strategies Coursework - 1

Amazons Business Model and the Operational Strategies - Coursework Example Amazon has been able to pull of its business model through the use of three operational strategies to enhance its competitive advantage: low-cost leadership and customer differentiation. However, when we evaluate Amazon’s business model and the operational strategies that underlie it they greatly resemble those of its key competitor Barnes & Noble. Barnes & Noble also used its economies of scale to support low-cost leadership, it broke new ground by developing software that would enable its customers to personalize their web pages and also enjoy the results of collaborative filtering (Ghemawat 13). The difference in one organization’s choice to use a pure play system while the other uses a brick-and-click system is too simplistic to explain the relative success of Amazon.com over Barnes & Noble. This would be best explained through the dynamic capability. Dynamic capability refers to the ability of the firm to purposefully create, extend or modify its resource base so as to achieve congruence with the changing business environment (Menon and Mohanty 3). Of importance to note is the use of the word â€Å"purposefully† which negates the element of accident or luck. Dynamic capability involves intent and the emergent stream of activities within an organization that is taken with a certain implicit aim. Although dynamic capabilities are equifinal and exhibit commonalities across firms, performance differences arise between firms due to both cost and differential timing with which the dynamic capabilities are used (Menon and Mohanty 5). They are path dependent processes thus are idiosyncratic and difficult to imitate. Dynamic capabilities can be a source of competitive advantage. That is why even though Barnes & Noble seem to be following similar operational strategies to Amazon.com, the results are different for each firm.

How informatics has altered nursing Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

How informatics has altered nursing - Essay Example Additionally nurses, while already known in general for having a wide range of skills and competencies, must thus be able to adapt and learn newer skill sets in order to better discharge their duties. All in all, that more and more people in hospitals require intensive care from nurses means that there is an equally dire need for the succeeding generations of nurses to be as competent as they possibly can be. Taking all these things into account, it should not be surprising that nursing as a profession has become highly in-demand, or that nursing has and will forever be changing to adapt with the times – thanks in part to the existence of nursing informatics. It is for this reason that nurses have always been able to reinforce their practices with a constant flow of newer knowledge – which, in this day and age, is something that they will definitely need more than ever before. Nursing Informatics – Past/Present/Future Trends, Benefits of Such Practices Saba and M cCormick (2001) have defined healthcare informatics in general as the integration of the branches of health, computer, information and cognitive sciences in managing healthcare information. Nursing informatics is one of its three subtypes – the other two being health and medical informatics, respectively – and is in turn defined by Hannah et al (1985) as how nurses make use of information technology in carrying out their daily duties. And this definition, too, was further expanded by Graves and Corcoran (1989) as â€Å"a combination of computer science, information science and nursing science designed to assist in the management and processing of nursing data, information and knowledge to support the practice of nursing and the delivery of nursing care† (p. 227). There can be little doubt that it is thanks to this particular branch of healthcare informatics that nurses have always been able to maintain a certain level of quality when it comes to their work; in f act, as stated by Curran (2003), it is absolutely essential that nurses and clinicians alike have some degree of competence here so that they will continue to maintain their competence and the quality of the healthcare they administer. Ball (2003) helps provide an overview of the evolution of nursing informatics. Even as early as the mid-80s, nurses could make use of the then-existing laptop computers during seminars, but today these laptops have become accessible even up to the patient’s bedside. And despite the existence of laptops then, their steep price made them too expensive to be commonplace in hospitals – or anywhere else, for that matter. Typewriters had the advantage of being much less costly, and much easier to use, but the cost of correction fluid could get to be a headache at times – much more so for those nurses who happened to make lots of mistakes while working. However, for the longest time, most nurses – that is, those who neither owned computers nor could afford to spend on them – had to deal with these potentially cumbersome contraptions. This being the case, the advent of computer technology has been a definite godsend. Where a few years ago, a nurse would have to jot down every single detail on a particular patient’

Law of International Dispute Resolution Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3750 words

Law of International Dispute Resolution - Essay Example The Treaty of Rome, in establishing the EEC in 1958, conceptualized a dynamic Europe to be an integrated regional economic and political union, "providing governance for a common market and organizing the steady growth of economic interdependence between the Member States". This new European environment which sharply defied the prevailing Westphalian state model - based on territoriality and autonomy - sought to engage states in an "international contractual arrangement that establishes authority structures superseding territorial boundaries and transgressing autonomy". Such a task was achieved by the European Court of Justice (ECJ) through the constitutionalisation of the Treaty of Rome, consequently cementing the "legal foundation for an integrated European economy and polity" and by the subsequent Treaties that followed. The most significant feature of the European Court of Justice is undoubtedly the doctrine of supremacy of Community law, which has continued to be the cause of much confusion and controversy regarding its actual Treaty position and entailment. The EC Treaty does not expressly provide for supremacy - there is no Article which clearly states that Community law is supreme over the national laws of the Member States - however, certain Articles of the EC Treaty impliedly require supremacy to be in effect. I will argue that in order to fulfil the main objectives of fostering integration stipulated by the Treaty of Rome, Community law requires supremacy of the ECJ which is provided through the interpretation of the European Community Treaties and case laws - whether categorically imposed or not. The need for an effective and uniform EC law applying within national legal orders in compliance to a voluntary limitation of sovereignty by Member States is critical to the concept of integration. By considering the fact that supremacy is ultimately perceived throughout national courts to be a monolithic holy concept which bears tremendous implications if removed or limited, the question is then raised as to how Member States receive the 'supreme nature' of Community Law. In attempting to clarify the need for a supreme legal authority for integration, I will examine the supremacy of EC law and state its Treaty position with particular emphasis on significant case-laws that have shaped the supremacy debate. Furthermore, I will observe the Constitutionalisation of the Treaty system, looking at the interplay of the doctrine of direct effect and doctrine of supremacy; under what conditions Member States might be provoked to challenge the authority of the ECJ; the expanding competence of the ECJ which now includes a political and judicial interplay of decision-making; and conclude with a look at what the Constitutional Treaty would have signified in terms of legalizing the doctrine of supremacy and how the rejection has started questioning whether the Community law should be considered above and beyond national laws and if it has gone too far already. The role of the European Court of Justice in developing the legal means for the integration process and constructing a constitution from the Treaty of Rome

Conformity and Obedience Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Conformity and Obedience - Assignment Example administering the drug, the nurse would have broken health care rules such as; accepting the instructions through phone which is not allowed, administering double of the maximum limit of the drug. Despite the fact that the nurse understands the dose that is supposed to be administered to the patient, the nurse changed in order to respond to the request or rather order from the doctor. Obedient in nursing practice should not be blind obedient but rather a professional interaction between a nurse and a doctor (Quinn, 1998). The responsibilities in health care settings are channelled as well as enforced, whereby some people such as physicians have power over others. In regards to this, the nurses in health care settings have to perform the activities since it comes from an authority figure. The nurse has to comply with the given orders from the physician. In this case, nurses are regarded as the helpmeets of physicians whereby they should not be the arrogant equal of men. Therefore, the nurse complies with physicians’ instruction since they get orders from them, despite breaking the rules of the hospital and risking the health and well being of the

Breast cancer Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Breast cancer - Research Paper Example s who have had a history of breast cancer provided the impetus for intense interest to delve further into contemporary issues relating to breast cancer on a global scale. In this regard, the current research would touch on diverse issues that confound women’s contracting this illness such as: risk factors, recurrence rates, conservation surgery through Indian experience; pregnancy associated breast cancer; the impact of curable versus advanced cancer in West of Romania; bioengineering embryonic stem cell microenvironments for the study of breast cancer; and triple negative breast cancer cell lines; to name just a few. The research would initially start with an introduction of the topic to include the researchers’ rationale for interest in the subject and to present current statistics and relevant information on current trends and patterns on breast cancer. A historical background would be delved into, particularly how the specific area of interest emerged. Likewise, the researchers would proffer ways in which the current study would be beneficial to various professionals who are interested on the topic. The research problem is to determine the best possible way of addressing breast cancer through the review of related literature on the subject. The researchers would integrate and synthesize the relevant findings noted from at least 15 authoritative and academic studies which have been contemporarily published in peer-reviewed journals. The discussion portion would highlight innovative ways of looking into addressing issues that confound breast cancer with the aim of better understanding the dilemma, determining how others tried to attempt it, and finally how they progressed in their respective researches. The concluding portion highlights the findings and stipulates the researchers’ recommendations. As indicated, the most effective intervention or treatment does not depend on the new technological or medical breakthrough discovered but on early detection

Networking Fundamentals Essay Example for Free

Networking Fundamentals Essay 1. Unit 1 review questions: a. The functions provided by a network are usually referred to as Network Services. b. A(n) Client Server may also be known as simply an access server. c. True or False: A client/server network is the simplest network model. d. True or False: A common way to share resources on a client/server network is by modifying the file-sharing controls via the computer’s operating system. e. True or False: The oldest and still most frequently used network communications services are print services. 3. Still learning about all these technical terms, so I goggled it come up with the similarities and differences between a peer-to-peer network and a client-server network are peer-to-peer network is inexpensive to set up and are installed where the employee most interacts regularly. Client-Server networks are as big or as little as you need, in some cases it has supported millions of users and ultimately can be really expensive to support and install. It says the concept behind the peer-to-peer networking is to be able to share all your files and use the same printers as cheap as possible. Seems though having a Peer-to-peer network you are exposing yourself, it has no central security or any way to change your settings, that it can’t control what is shared on the network. 4. Describe two hypothetical situations, one in which a peer-to-peer network would be most appropriate and one in which a client-server network would be most appropriate, and explain why the particular network type would be most appropriate for that case. In one of my previous jobs I worked for an eye doctor, the best thing for her when setting up her office is to build a peer-to-peer network. We had a total of 5 people that worked in the office, by doing the peer-to-peer network it is inexpensive and it will get the job done. We don’t need a lot being a small company and we shared the network drive for the patient files and printed to the same printer. For the Client-Server Network, it would be for a company that I work for right now and that is Amazon.com, this building has about 3,000 employees that need to log into a computer to either process a customer order, get the order for the shelves or ship it out. So they will most definitely need a larger server to maintain the largely group of people on one network.

Individual Learner Differences In Second Language Acquisition Education Essay

Individual Learner Differences In Second Language Acquisition Education Essay 1. Introduction The fact that competency levels attained by second language learners fluctuate so greatly (Lightbown and Spada, 2006: 53), raises an intriguing question with regards to second language acquisition (SLA), why are some individuals better at acquiring language than others? A major reason for this variation in L2 proficiency levels is commonly attributed to individual learner differences (ILDs), (DÃ ¶rnyei, 2005: 2). This essay sets out to explain the important role that ILDs play in SLA, through an in-depth discussion on the contribution made by L2 motivation. Three influential theories offering different perspectives on L2 motivation: the Socio-educational model, self-determination theory and the Process model will be discussed in detail. I will also look at the theoretical shifts currently taking place in L2 motivation research, before concluding with a discussion on the strategies that teachers can use to instil and nurture motivation in their students. 2. Role of ILDs in SLA Individual differences are unique learning characteristics which are present in all learners to varying degrees. They can help to distinguish learning needs and identify the extent to which learners will succeed in acquiring a second language (Lightbown and Spada, 2006). These differences are social, cognitive and affective in nature, and include aptitude, motivation, age, personality, learning strategies, learning styles and anxiety (for detailed reviews, see for example, Naiman et al 1995; Skehan 1989; DÃ ¶rnyei 2005). Their relevance to language achievement has made ILDs, a focus of considerable attention in SLA research (DÃ ¶rnyei, 2005). Developments in research, especially in relation to aptitude and motivation, has seen a shift from a product-orientated approach to a more process-orientated stance (ibid: 6). Recent studies have highlighted the importance of the temporal nature and situational context of learner characteristics (DÃ ¶rnyei, 2009). Current arguments however, have suggested that rather than being monolithic variables, ILDs are complex attributes consisting of a combination of sub-components and sub-processes (ibid). All ILDs are implicated in language learning, however they do not function in isolation and some even have elements in common (Gardner, 2008). A look at some of the influential theories which have emerged from research on L2 motivation over the last fifty years will help to explain the complex role that ILDs can play in the language learning process. 3. L2 Motivation Motivation is a learners orientation towards learning goals (Gardner, 1985), and is regarded by many as the most influential ILD in the language learning process (Ellis, 1985). Therefore its relevance to the classroom environment becomes evident, and to know what drives this motivation is of great pedagogic interest. Many of the learner characteristics involved in the SLA process are dependent on, and in some cases completely overridden by motivation (Gardner, 2006). A learner with a natural aptitude for learning languages, for example, may find it difficult to attain long-term language goals without the necessary motivation (ibid). On the other hand, high levels of motivation may lead to successful learning, even where little aptitude exists for language (ibid). Theories looking to explain the role of motivation in language learning have evolved through four main stages. DÃ ¶rnyei (2005) categorises these as: the Social Psychological period (1959-1990); the Cognitive-Situated period (1990s); the Process-orientated stage (late 1990s); and finally a period (last decade) consisting of new approaches that have focused on a learners sense of self-identity. Table 1 summarises the main L2 motivation theories and concepts. 3.1. The Social Psychological approach to L2 motivation Interest in L2 motivation was initiated by social psychologists Wallace Lambert, Robert Gardner and associates as early as 1959, looking to understand the language and cultural Approach to motivation Examples Social-psychological Socio-educational model, (Gardner, 1985). Key concepts: Integrative motivation, Integrativeness, integrative orientation. Theory of Linguistic self-confidence, (Clement, 1986). Key concepts: Self-confidence a self-belief of having the ability to manage the learning process. Cognitive Situated Self-determination theory, (Brown, 1994; Noels et al., 2000). Key concepts: intrinsic/extrinsic motivation, amotivation. Attribution theory, (Weiner, 1992). Key concepts: attributing past success or failure to current actions. Goal setting theory, (Oxford and Shearin, 1994). Key concepts: Cognitive perception of goals as a motivating factor. Goal orientation theory, (Ames, 1992). Key concepts: Goal mastery andperformance orientations. Motivation and learner strategy use, (Oxford and Nyikos; 1989, Macintyre et al., 1996). Key concepts: Motivation as a key factor in stimulating strategy use. Task Motivation, (Julkunen, 2001; Dornyei, 2003). Key concepts: task execution, appraisal, action control. Mixed approach i. Willingness to communicate, (Macintyre et al., 1998, 2003). Key concepts: Willingness to communicate as a key factor for achieving communicative competency. Process-orientated Process model, (Dornyei and Otto, 1998; Dornyei, 2001b). Key concepts: temporal nature of motivation, which includes a preactional/actional/postactional stage. Current and future L2 motivational self system, (Dornyei, 2005). Key concepts: ideal L2 self, ought-to L2 self. Complex dynamic systems, (Larsen-Freeman, 2007). Key concepts: integrating different theoretical perspectives. Table 1. Some of the different approaches used in L2 motivation research conflicts between English and French speaking communities in Canada. Their research adopted a socio-psychological approach, based on the central idea that a learners success in acquiring a second language is dictated by an attitude towards the target language community (Gardner, 1985). Their research on students learning French showed that aptitude and motivation are closely associated with achievement in language learning (ibid). They concluded that motivation is characterised by an individuals willingness to be like members of the target community (ibid). A model based on a socio-psychological approach that has been very influential in L2 motivation research is Gardners socio-educational model (see for example, Gardner and Lambert, 1972; Gardner, 1985; Gardner and MacIntyre, 1991). The most recent version of this model is shown in figure 1. LANGUAGE ACHIEVMENT Other Factors (for example, Learning strategies, language ANXIETY (Gardner, 2001)) Other Support LANGUAGE APTITUDE INTEGRATIVE MOTIVATION INTEGRATIVENESS MOTIVATION ATTITUDE TOWARDS THE LEARNING SIITUATION Figure 1. A basic model of the role of motivation in SLA (adapted from Gardner (2001b)). The most elaborate and researched aspect of Gardners model is integrative motivation, which he defines as the motivation to learn a L2 because of a positive attitude towards, and a desire to integrate with that community (Gardner, 2001b). The three variables that constitute integrative motivation are (ibid): Integrativeness this represents a desire to learn a second language to identify with the target community, and is reflected in a learners behaviour through the following: An integrative orientation, representing the reason for learning, which in this case is an interest in learning an L2 to interact with the target community. A positive attitude towards the target language group. An interest in foreign languages or a general openness to all language groups. Attitudes towards the learning situation (ATLS) this refers to attitudes towards the language teacher, the course in general, the course materials and other factors related to the learning context. Motivation this is a learners goal driven behaviour. A motivated learner: makes a concerted effort to learn a language, for example by doing extra work and seeking more learning opportunities, displays a strong desire to learn a language and is focused on achieving the goal, enjoys learning and has an overall positive attitude towards the learning process. An integratively motivated learner is therefore: motivated to learn a second language, keen to interact and be associated with the target community, and has a positive outlook on the learning situation. To sustain consistent levels of motivation, integrativeness and/or a positive ATLS are essential characteristics, however, it is the motivation element of the Integrative Motivation complex that is the active variable and which directly influences Language Achievement (Gardner, 2001b: 6). Therefore, a learner who has a high level of integrativeness and/or a positive attitude towards learning, but is low in motivation is unlikely to achieve high levels of proficiency. The affect of instrumental factors on L2 motivation was not included in Gardners core theory, but he suggests that they could be one of the other supports affecting motivation (Gardner, 2001a: 7). Based on this, it is possible to substitute integrativeness with instrumentality in the representation of the model in figure 1, to give what Gardner calls Instrumental Motivation (ibid). This is a motivation to learn a L2 for instrumental gains, such as better employment or education. An instrumentally motivated learner has specific communicative needs, which provide a purpose for learning and an impetus for successful language acquisition (Gardner and Lambert, 1972). Gardners model makes little reference to other attributes, for example, personal aspirations and past experiences, which could affect an integratively motivated learner. However, empirical research in different contexts is continuously bringing to light the possibility of including more factors in the general L2 motivational construct. To check Gardners model for adaptability, Tremblay and Gardner (1995) integrated other measurements of motivation, such as anxiety and goal-setting strategies. Empirical testing of the extended model showed that addition of the extra variables did not affect the structure of the original model (ibid). Research on motivation in different context has led some applied linguists to suggest the notion of the language community associated with integrative motivation is untenable for international learners of English (Ushioda and DÃ ¶rnyei, 2009). In a multi-lingual society like China, for example, few opportunities exist for interacting with native English communities. In such a context, instrumental motivation or external factors (for example, exams and employment) are more prevalent among learners than a desire for integrating with native speakers of English (Warden and Lin, 2008). For this reason, other researchers have suggested that the integrative construct should at least be re-examined by including the global L2 learning context and the multi-dimensionality of a learners identity. DÃ ¶rnyei and Csizer, (2002) suggested that rather than identifying with an external language community, the integrative concept could be more accurately linked to a learners internal process of identification with a self-concept. DÃ ¶rnyeis (2005) motivational self-system which developed from this idea is discussed in section 3.4. 3.2. Self-Determination Theory and SLA Influenced by advances in motivational psychology, and a need to understand the classroom-situated nature of motivation, L2 research moved on from a socio-psychological approach, to look at affects of classroom-situated factors on motivation. Self-determination theory (SDT) is a highly influential approach in motivational psychology, and several studies have attempted to incorporate some of its components to explain L2 motivation (for example, Brown, 1994; Noels et al., 2000). According to this theory there are three types of learner motivations: intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation, and amotivation (Deci and Ryan, 2002). These motivations form a continuum depending on the degree of learner self-determination, where self-determination is as an individuals sense of choice and control over the learning process (ibid). Intrinsic Motivation (IM) refers to an individuals motivation to undertake an activity, purely for personal feelings of pleasure and enjoyment associated with that activity, and is driven by a desire for competence and self-determination (Noel et al., 2000). Intrinsically motivated students are considered more likely to achieve autonomy, competence and fulfil long-term language goals (Ramage, 1990). Extrinsic motivation (EM), on the other hand, relates to actions carried out for: instrumental gains, in search for reward or to avoid punishment (Noels et al., 2000). This motivation can vary in degree depending on the extent to which the activity is controlled by the learner or other variables (Deci and Ryan, 2002). Vallerand et al., (1993) have suggested six subtypes of IM and EM which lie on a continuum of self-determination (see table 2). Noels (2001) suggests that L2 learner motivation can be assessed using the intrinsic and extrinsic constructs. These motivations however, do not necessarily have to be exclusive, for example, a learner whose behaviour is consistent with identified regulation may also exhibit some of the adjacent motivations on the continuum (ibid). Self-Determination Type of Motivation Description HIGH Zero Intrinsic Motivation to know Performing an activity for the pleasure associated with learning or exploring new knowledge. E.g., when reading a new book. Intrinsic Motivation to accomplish Performing an activity for the pleasure associated with accomplishing or creating something. E.g., a student doing more homework than is required. Intrinsic Motivation to experience stimulation Performing an activity for the stimulated sensations (e.g. pleasure and excitement) associated with engagement with the activity. E.g., a student who goes to class for the pleasure of participating in discussions. Extrinsic Motivation Identified Regulation Extrinsic motivation is internalised to the extent that learner behaviour is regulated by a sense of value and usefulness of the activity to the self. E.g., a student who studies the night before an exam because they think it is important to them. Extrinsic Motivation Introjected Regulation Learner behaviour is regulated by internalisation of past external means. E.g., studying the night before an exam because it is expected of a good student. Extrinsic Motivation External Regulation Learner behaviour is regulated completely by external means (rewards or constraints) showing the least self-determined form of extrinsic motivation. E.g., Studying the night before an exam because of pressure from parents. Amotivation A lack of extrinsic and intrinsic motivation. A learner feels their behaviour is regulated by factors out of their control, and may eventually drop out of the learning process. Table 2. Language Learning Orientation Scale: Intrinsic Motivation, Extrinsic Motivation and Amotivation (adapted from Vallerand et al., (1993)). Intrinsic motivation is characterised by a strong sense of self-determination, and is closely associated with integrative motivation (Noels, 2001). This suggests that students learning a language for pleasure may also be seeking interaction with the L2 community. Intrinsic motivation however, is identified more with attitudes towards learning, than the target community (ibid: 54). The social environment (for example, the teacher, family members and the L2 community) has considerable influence on a students perception of self-determination. A teacher plays a significant role in this regard, and can promote intrinsic motivation by encouraging learner autonomy and providing positive feedback (Noels, 2000: 55). Similarly, students learning for intrinsic reasons are more sensitive to the teachers instructional style (ibid). In contrast, the less self-determined external regulation component of extrinsic motivation is linked to instrumental behaviour (Noels, 2001: 53). A limitation of extrinsic behaviour is that it can have short-term characteristics. A study carried out by Ramage (1990) showed that students who learnt a language for academic reasons are more likely to discontinue future language classes. Extrinsic course pressures, for example, compulsory reading, can also negatively affect a learners intrinsic interests (DÃ ¶rnyei, 1994a). 3.3. A Process-orientated approach to motivation DÃ ¶rnyei and Ottos (1998) process model of motivation integrates various theoretical perspectives of L2 motivation, and draws attention to the temporal nature of motivation in classroom learning. The model is influenced by Heckhausen and Kuhls Action control theory, which proposes two sequential phases of motivational behaviour: an individuals motivation to form an attention, and a motivation to initiate and sustain the intended action (Heckhausen, 1991). DÃ ¶rnyei and Ottos model breaks down the motivational process into three temporal phases. The first relates to the transformation of initial desires to goals, and then intentions. The next sees these intentions being enacted, leading to the successful/unsuccessful accomplishment of goals, and the final phase is an overall evaluation of the learning process (see figure 2). Preactional Stage (Choice Motivation) Motivational Functions: generate motivation to select a goal; form an intention to act; select an action plan to enact the intention. Possible factors influencing motivation: goal properties; attitude towards the learning process; attitude towards the target community; perception of self-ability; social environmental encouragement or discouragement. Actional Stage (Executive Motivation) Motivational Functions: carry out sub-tasks to maintain motivation; ongoing appraisal of achievement; action control (self-regulation to help persevere with learning). Possible factors influencing motivation: quality of the learning experience; degree of autonomy; teacher, learner group and family influence/support; classroom structure (competitive or co-operative); knowledge and ability to use self-motivating, goal-setting and learning strategies. Postactional Stage (Motivational Retrospection) Motivational Functions: attribute reasons to success or failure; elaborate internal standards and action-specific strategies; dismiss original intention and further planning. Possible factors influencing motivation: personal attribution style; self-confidence; feedback. Figure 2. Process model of L2 learning motivation (adapted from Dornyei, (2003: 19)). An important assertion made by the process-orientated model is that motivational behaviour is influenced by different factors. Consequently, different theories of motivation can be associated with each phase (DÃ ¶rnyei, 2003: 18). Integrativeness, for example, may be the motivational influence on goal setting in the preactional stage. In the executive phase, situated aspects of motivation play a greater role, mechanisms of the task processing system are more relevant here (DÃ ¶rnyei, 2003). The retrospective links that learners make between the original goal and actual achievement in the post-actional stage are likely to be attributed to past learning experiences, a motivational behaviour addressed by Weiner (1992) in the attribution theory. Two aspects that the model overlooks are: the possibility of several actional processes running concurrently, or an actional process with multiple motivational influences (DÃ ¶rnyei, 2003). This is likely in a school setting, where students often have multiple goals (for example, social and academic) and overlapping motivational influences (for example, task, course or curriculum related) (ibid). The model assumes that the actional processes have defined boundaries, however in an educational context it may be difficult to identify where one actional process starts and the next begins. 3.4. Present and future: The motivational self-system and a Dynamic systems approach. Since the socio-psychological period of motivation research, the global reality of English has changed immensely. The rapid globalisation of English has challenged the validity of many SLA theories (Kachru, 1988), because these theories fail to consider the context of the world Englishes learner (Sridhar and Sridhar, 1992). With limited or no contact opportunities with the native target community, the notion of a self-concept (referring to an individuals images and cognitions of the self) suggested by DÃ ¶rnyei and Csizer (2002), is possibly a more relevant motivational feature in many EFL contexts. DÃ ¶rnyei developed this idea further, in his L2 motivational self-system, which equated integrativeness with an ideal L2 self (DÃ ¶rnyei, 2005; 2010). The main components of this system are: (DÃ ¶rnyei, 2010) Ideal L2 Self a L2-specific image of the attributes that one would like to possess. For example, hopes, desires, aspirations. Ought-to L2 Self a self-guide which refers to those attributes one thinks one ought to possess to meet expectations and avoid negative outcomes. L2 Learning Experience this refers to the executive motives (similar to those identified in the Process model) associated with the immediate learning environment and experience. For example, impact of the teacher, other learners, the course, the experience of success. The hypothesis behind the self-system is that a learners desire to become a person proficient in the L2, serves as a powerful motivating force to learn a language (Ushioda and DÃ ¶rnyei, 2009: 3-4). A recent study in the Japanese context showed that this desire represented by the ideal L2 self is equivalent to the concept of integrativeness in Gardners socio-educational model, but the ideal L2 self is probably more accurate in explaining motivated behaviour (Ryan, 2009) DÃ ¶rnyeis idea of placing the self at the centre of the conceptual role of motivation offers a new perspective, however it overlooks the process-orientated, and contextually dynamic nature of motivation. Justifying this complex nature of L2 motivation, can only be possible by integrating more than one approach (Macintyre et al., 2010). A possibility of combining different perspectives of motivation is suggested by Ushioda (2009) with her person-in-context, relational view of emergent motivation. She suggests that integrating relevant theoretical frameworks to support future analysis of the complex nature of interactional processes and contextual factors in motivational behaviour can help to provide a better understanding of how L2 motivation is shaped (ibid). A similar possibility is offered by the theoretical paradigms of dynamic systems theory (for a detailed review, see Larsen-Freeman and Cameron, 2008). This theory involves a study of systems, where the system is analysed as a whole rather than as its individual parts (ibid). Learner variation is seen as the result of a complex system of relevant factors working in unison, rather than as a result of differences in individual determinants (for example, aptitude or motivation) (DÃ ¶rnyei, 2009). As an example of an application of a dynamic systems approach to L2 learning, DÃ ¶rnyei suggests the possibility of identifying an optimal combination of motivational, cognitive and affective factors with regard to task behaviour, that function as an integrated unit (for a detailed review see, ibid). 4. The practical value of theory motivational strategies for the classroom Chomsky (1988) emphasises the vital role played by teachers in learner motivation by suggesting that ninety nine per cent of teaching involves getting students interested in learning. A language teachers motivational practice is also linked directly to increased levels of learner motivation (Guilloteaux and DÃ ¶rnyei, 2008). Therefore, the need to use appropriate strategies to manage classroom motivation is extremely relevant to L2 practitioners. Motivational strategies are techniques used by a teacher to manage learner motivation, or used by individual learners to regulate their own motivation levels (Guilloteaux and DÃ ¶rnyei, 2008). Although, several motivation strategies have been proposed in L2 literature (for example, Williams and Burden, 1997; DÃ ¶rnyei, 2001a; Alison and Halliwell, 2002), very few are supported by empirical evidence. Self-motivating strategies for learners are an even less researched area of L2 motivation (DÃ ¶rnyei, 2006). An example of an elaborate, theory-based framework which looks at motivational strategies from both a teacher and leaner perspective is proposed by DÃ ¶rnyei (2001a). This model consists of four phases (ibid): Creating the basic motivational condition, by establishing a good student-teacher relationship, a relaxed learning atmosphere and a cohesive learner group. Generating initial motivation by: Strengthening language related values and attitudes (intrinsic, integrative or instrumental values). Increasing the expectancy of success. Increasing goal-orientedness, for example, by making learners aware of the practical (non-syllabus related) reasons or value of doing an activity. Making teaching materials relevant. Creating realistic learner beliefs. Many new learners have inaccurate beliefs about language learning, a realisation of their falseness can have a demotivating influence. Maintaining and protecting motivation, to keep sight of goals, and maintain interest and concentration. The most relevant strategies in this phase include: Making the learning process stimulating and interesting. Presenting tasks in a motivating manner, making them stimulating and relevant. Setting specific learner goals. Preserving the learners self-esteem and promoting their self-confidence. Creating learner autonomy. Promoting self-motivating learner strategies in order to: Preserve the original goal commitment, for example, by encouraging learners to remember favourable expectations or positive rewards. Maintain concentration, for example, by encouraging learners to: identify and manage distractions; and focus on the first steps to take when beginning an activity. Eliminate boredom and add extra interest in a task, for example, by showing learners how to add a twist to a task and using their imagination to make it more stimulating. Manage disruptive emotions and generate a positive emotional state, for example, by getting students to self-encourage and introducing them to relaxation techniques. Remove negative and utilise positive environmental influences, for example, by encouraging students to remove distractions and asking for peer help. Encouraging positive retrospective self-evaluation, by : Promoting positive learner attributions (an idea supported by the Attribution theory, Weiner, 1992) Providing motivational feedback, that is informative and encouraging. This can help to increase learner satisfaction and self-confidence, and encourages constructive self-reflection on weaknesses. Using rewards and grades cautiously, as they can distract the learner from the real purpose of the task (DÃ ¶rnyei, 2006:730). When they are used, they should be offered in a motivational manner. The most motivating of teachers are considered to be those who rely on a few simple and carefully selected techniques (DÃ ¶rnyei, 2006: 730-731). Therefore, achieving optimal levels of learner motivation are more likely if motivational strategies are matched by a teacher selectively, to learners specific needs. 5. Conclusion This essay discussed the significant role that motivation, as an example of an ILD variable, plays in the long and arduous task of second language acquisition. I presented three influential theories that have approached L2 motivation from different perspectives, and looked at some of the current trends in motivational research. A look at some possible motivational strategies demonstrated how theoretical concepts can be applied to improve the quality of classroom learning. The motivational characteristics of the L2 learner highlight the complex but influential role played by ILDs in SLA. Many of the variables involved in L2 motivation have a degree of overlap, and interact both with each other and other ILDs (Gardner, 2008). In order to understand the true nature of these webs of interactions and their affect on L2 achievement, the possibilities offered by a dynamic systems approach is probably the best way forward.

Preventing Accidents on Construction Sites

Preventing Accidents on Construction Sites This chapter investigates the health and safety measures that are currently in place to reduce accidents and injuries on construction sites. In order to prevent accidents in construction it is not just a matter of setting up a list of rules and making safety inspections, although both of these have their place (Holt, 2001). Holt (2001) suggests that a system for managing health and safety is required that meets the needs of the business and complies with the law. This chapter intends to identify these strategies used and highlight the benefits to the industry in implementing them. The most important overall method is to implement the CDM regulations 2007 successfully, however within these regulations there are specific measures that can provide better results. The HSE concluded in ‘Blackspot Construction’ that 70% of the deaths on construction sites could have been prevented by positive action by managers within the industry (Joyce, 2001). The general principles of prevention as stated in regulation 7 of the CDM regulations 2007 are as follows: i. Every person on whom a duty is placed by these Regulations in relation to the design, planning and preparation of a project shall take account of the general principles of prevention in the performance of those duties during all stages of the project. ii. Every person on whom a duty is placed by these Regulations in relation to the construction phase of a project shall ensure so far as is reasonably practicable that the general principles of prevention are applied in the carrying out of the construction work. Welfare Facilities The provision for health, safety and welfare of workers involved on construction sites was not included in the CDM Regulations 1994 as it was the responsibility of the CHSW 1996; however these regulations have now been revoked by the CDM regulations 2007. These regulations set out the requirements for the provision of welfare facilities to be provided by the contractors as it has recently been recognized that the health and safety of workers is directly affected by their personal welfare (Joyce, 2007). The provision of high welfare facilities is likely to reduce the number of accidents and injuries on construction sites as it promotes recruitment, good morale and employee retention. These reasons alone should be sufficient justification for the investment in welfare facilities which should encourage the client and contractors to ensure that they are provided on construction sites from the outset to an acceptable level. Without the provision of welfare facilities workers are likely to be cold, overheated, dirty, dehydrated and uncomfortable (Joyce, 2007), this in turn will have an effect on the efficiency and effectiveness of their work undertaken creating an unsafe environment to themselves and their fellow workers. The provision of welfare facilities can be seen as an important measure to reduce accidents on construction sites; however the contractors must ensure that they are cleaned and maintained throughout the entire duration of the construction work in order to achieve their full benefit to the industry. Education and Training Education and training plays a very important part in the reduction of accidents on construction sites which is a legal requirement under the Management of Health and Safety at Work regulations 1999 as well as more recently the CDM regulations 2007. It is the responsibility of the employer to provide such training during recruitment, at inductions or when being exposed to new or increased risks (Hughes Ferret 2007). The levels of education and training required covers a wide range of information such as specific company health and safety policies, risk assessments, method statements, safety procedures, good practice and legal requirements (Hughes Ferret 2005). It is evident that providing essential information through a high level of education and training will enable employees to carry out tasks with limited supervision, this in turn should reduce the likelihood of health and safety risks and therefore help reduce the number of accidents and injuries within the construction industry. Construction Skills Certification Scheme (CSCS) The Construction Skills Certification scheme has been set up to help improve the general quality of workmanship as well as to reduce accidents and injuries occurring on construction sites. This CSCS scheme helps to ensure that competent workers are registered within the construction industry, which is currently the largest scheme within the construction industry which covers over 220 different occupations. As a result of this these cards are becoming increasingly demanded throughout, in particular by clients and contractors in order for workers to provide proof of their occupational competence and therefore gain access onto construction sites throughout the UK. This scheme has been supported by construction authorities such as the Major Contractors Group (MCG), National Contractors Federation (NCF) and the Major Home Builders Group (MHG) as it shows they have passed the CITB – Construction Skills Health and Safety Test. If these cards are made mandatory as a standard requirement within the construction industry then it will ensure that the general health and safety awareness of construction workers on construction sites with regards to health and safety risks will significantly improve, therefore more than likely reduce the number of accidents and fatalities within the industry. http://www.citb.org.uk/cardschemes/whatcardschemesareavailable/certificationschemes/cscs.asp Competence Assessments The CDM regulations 2007 have highlighted the increased awareness that the employment of competent workers is likely to reduce the number of accidents within the construction industry. This is evident from the increased vigour of worker competence assessments that are required before a work operative can start work. Competence assessments are carried out in order to assess whether a person is suited to carry out a job which is a method used to reduce accident on construction sites. It is the author’s opinion that competent people are more aware of health and safety risks surrounding them which they can therefore deal with before an accident occurs. The level of competence required is proportionate to the risks arising from the construction work (Joyce, 2007) which is stated in the ACoP so no work undertaken should be carried out by an unable worker. The term competence is not defined in the CDM regulations however a definition made during a civil court case in 1962 sates that a competent person is: A person with practical and theoretical knowledge as well as sufficient experience of the particular machinery, plant or procedure involved to enable them to identify defects or weaknesses during plant and machinery examinations, and to assess their importance in relation to the strength and function of that plant and machinery. The concept of confidence underpins the CDM regulations 2007 because no duty holder can be appointed unless they are competent themselves, this is required by regulation 4(1)(a): No person on whom these Regulations place a duty shall appoint or engage a CDM co-coordinator, designer, principal contractor or contractor unless he has taken steps to ensure that the person to be appointed or engaged is competent. In order to prevent incompetent people assessing the competence of others, the CDM regulations set out a statement in regulation 4(1)(b): No person on whom these Regulations place a duty shall accept an appointment or engagement unless he is competent. The introduction of the CDM Regulations 2007 clearly shows that competence assessment is an important measure to prevent accident on construction sites and must be implemented further if these measures are to be highly successful. Designing to reduce risks The introduction of the CDM regulations 2007 has provided a bigger emphasis on designing out risks in the planning stage of construction projects. Increased responsibility has been placed on designers as a result of the introduction of the CDM regulations 2007 to eliminate hazards before they have chance to occur. Holt (2001) suggests that the method of prevention to remove the risk of a hazard at the design stage is likely to be more effective than to establish a control strategy, especially as it would rely on people to work in the correct way which is not always likely to happen. An example of this may be for a designer to prevent from specifying fragile roofing materials which could present the opportunity for people to fall through. In the event of a designer unable to completely eliminate health and safety risks at the design stage, then the design and specification can still make a significant difference to actions carried out on site. It should emphasize ways in which work should be carried out in order to provide minimal health and safety risks to workers. The extra time spent that may result from a more detailed design process should be repaid through savings of time and money, and possibly lives throughout the construction process (Holt, 2001). Communication The variety of measures in place in order to reduce accidents and fatalities on construction sites which are evident from the ongoing literature review throughout this chapter. The successfulness of these measures however is dependant on effective communication, particularly when implementing training and education as it will dramatically improve work operatives understanding of health and safety risks. Hughes and Ferret (2007) suggest that many problems regarding health and safety on construction sites is a result of poor communication between management and the workforce within an organization, this often arises from ambiguities or possible accidental distortion. There are 3 basic methods of communicating health and safety information within the construction industry identified by Hughes Ferret (2007) as verbal, written and graphic. The most common of these methods is verbal communication via speech or word of mouth, this type of communication should only be used when providing simple instructions or information generally during meetings or training sessions, these are generally known as ‘tool box’ talks. In order for the implementation of verbal communication to be successful, the spokesperson needs to ensure that the messages they are trying to relay are clear and prevent confusion, the receiver should then demonstrate some form of understanding in order to prove they clear on what is expected of them before undertaking any work. This method of accident prevention can have its drawbacks and be a regular cause of accidents on construction sites if a verbal instruction has not been understood. Hughes and Ferret (2007) suggest that this may be as a result of a number of factors such as language and dialect barriers, use of technical language and abbreviations, background noise and distractions, hearing problems, ambiguities in the message, mental weaknesses and learning disabilities, lack of interest and attention. Despite the potential limitations that exist with verbal communications, there are also a number of benefits that it brings to construction sites if carried out successfully. Communication in this manner is less formal, enables the exchange of information to take place quickly and can be carried out close to the workplace (Hughes Ferret, 2007). Written communication involves the use of emails, reports, notice boards etc. in order to communicate information regarding health and safety. Potential problems involved with this form of communication are that the language used may be difficult to understand and affect the level of comprehension. Detailed reports may not be read properly due to time constraints and notice boards may be positioned in the wrong places with out of date and irrelevant information. The main benefit of using written communication, in particular emails, is that it provides a quicker method to ensure that messages get to all the people that may be concerned which is an important measure which could be implemented further to reduce accidents on construction sites (Hughes Ferret, 2007). Graphical communication is carried out through the use of photographs, drawings, posters and videos. This type of communication is often used to inform workers of health and safety information such as fire exits and HS propaganda. This is regarded as being a relatively effective method of communication as it has no barriers with regards to language or dialect and displays a simple message that can be remembered. The potential limitations regarding this procedure is that the graphics may very quickly become out of date or in the case of posters, be ignored (Hughes Ferret). Improvements in Technology A key measure in which to reduce accidents on construction sites is through the use of up to date technologies. This view is supported by (reference) who suggests that new technologies in construction sites are not only likely to help prevent accidents and injuries on construction sites but also improve the overall efficiency of construction projects. This view is also supported by Holt (2001) who suggests that keeping up to date with new technology can bring an added benefit to the industry and generally improve site conditions. The introduction of new technology may be in the form of improved software, software often gets up-graded quickly with new and improved packages that should be installed to benefit the industry. It may also involve improvements in technology such as the new Blackberry; this can incorporate cell phone capability and email connectivity into a single device that will benefit employers relaying safety messages quickly and directly to employees on site, therefore improving coordination between site operatives. New technology may also be in the form of site equipment and plant, for instance the use of mechanical systems such as hoists and lifts should be replaced instead of manual operations, this is not only likely to increase productivity on site but also prevent the likelihood of injuries such as back problems. The introduction of improved technologies into construction sites in an attempt to reduce accidents and injures is largely dependant on the level of training that accompanies it. Employers must be aware that productivity on site may not be at its peak during the period of change as new software and equipment requires training and adjustments to that of old technologies. However, if sufficient training is provided to accompany the new technology and software then employees will be able to harness the power of new technologies and provide numerous benefits to the construction industry. Risks Assessments Risk assessments are an important measure used to reduce HS risks on construction sites, they are a legal requirement of many HS legislations during the planning stage of a project so that plans can be put in place to control potential risks as assessed in Chapter 2 of this study. A risk assessment involves an examination of the potential risks that may cause harm to people which cannot be avoided through the design process of a project, the risk assessments should only identify the significant risks that apply to the construction project and ignore the trivial risks that are not likely to result in an accident or fatality. They are carried out in order for organisations to establish whether they have taken enough precautions or to identify if they could do more to prevent the likelihood of an accident or fatality on the construction site (HSE, 2006a). Risk assessments are used to decide on priorities and set objectives for eliminating hazards and reducing risks, if this is possible it is usually through selection and design of facilities, equipment and processes. However if they cannot be eliminated they are minimised by the use of physical controls or, as a last resort, through systems of work and personal protective equipment (Hughes Ferrett, 2007). ‘A hazard is something with potential to cause harm. The harm will vary in severity some hazards may cause death, some serious illness or disability, others only cuts and bruises. A Risk is the combination of the severity of harm with the likelihood of it happening.’ http://www.hse.gov.uk/pubns/indg275.pdf Hughes and Ferrett (2007) identifies two basic forms of risk assessments, these are ‘quantitative’, which involves risks given a numerical value and ‘qualitative’ which is the most common form of risk assessment in the construction industry which is based purely on personal judgement and then quantified as being either high, medium or low risk in terms of its severity. The HSE (2006a) identified the following 5 key steps in order to asses the risk in a workplace: Step 1: Identify the hazards Step 2: Decide who might be harmed and how Step 3: Evaluate the risks and decide on precautions Step 4: Record your findings and implement them Step 5: Review your assessment and update if necessary If these steps are followed by every construction organisation throughout the UK then it will make a big difference to reducing the number of accidents and fatalities on construction sites which is regarded as being the principal aim of risk assessments, this aim however is also dependant on the competence of people carrying out the risk assessment and also the communication of their findings. An example of a risk assessment form can be seen in Appendix 2. Health and Safety Culture HSE publication HSG 65, Successful Health and Safety Management Health and Safety Inductions Health and Safety Policies Health and Safety Policies are an important measure that are required by law for every organisation to produce. The can play a key role in reducing accidents and fatalities on construction sites. They have been assessed in greater detail in chapter 2, section 8.4. Managing Risks during construction The introduction of the CDM regulations have also placed more emphasis on managing risks during construction in order to target the high level of accidents and fatalities on construction sites. This measure involves creating a well established management system that controls the potential risks faced during a construction project and deciding what should be done about them. This may involve giving collective protective measures priority over individual measures to provide the biggest benefit to the health and safety of everyone involved. This may involve removing hazardous dust by exhaust ventilation rather than providing a filtering respirator to an individual worker (Rowlinson, 2004). It is therefore the role of a manager, such as the principal contractor to assess the most appropriate protective measures to use during the construction process and ensure that people under his command abide by these management decisions. Managing risks during construction may also be in the form of giving appropriate instructions to employees. This may involve making sure that all employees are fully aware of specific company policies, risk assessments, method statements, safety procedures, good practice, official guidance, and any legal requirements that they must follow (Holt, 2001). Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) It is the opinion of (make up a reference) that Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) should only be used as a control measure as a last resort to try to reduce accidents and fatalities on construction sites. This is due to the fact that it does not eliminate the hazard and will present the wearer with the maximum health and safety risk if the equipment fails. Hughes and Ferrett (2007) identify a number of limitations as to why PPE should only be used as a last resort such as the equipment only protects the person wearing it and doesn’t take into account the effects the risk may have on others working nearby; it relies on people wearing the equipment at all times which people do not often do; it must be used properly which requires training, this could result in a loss of time and productivity and it must be replaced when it no longer offers the appropriate levels of protection. Aside from these limitations the use of PPE still provides certain benefits to the industry and is an important measure to reduce, or at least prevent the level of accidents on construction sites. PPE enables workers to have immediate protection to allow a job to continue; in an emergency it can be the only practicable way of effecting rescue or shutting down plant; and it can be used to carry out work in confined spaces where alternatives are impracticable (Hughes Ferrett, 2007). The Construction Phase Plan The Health and Safety File The Construction Phase Plan and The Health and Safety File which were introduced by the CDM regulations both help to reduce accidents and injuries on construction sites. They have been discussed previously in Chapter 1, Section 7.2 in greater detail on the positive impacts they have on the construction industry. It is the opinion of the author that these measures to reduce accidents on construction sites should be reviewed periodically to ensure that they are still effective and to introduce new improvements to these measures. In the event of a serious accident or incident occurring on a construction site, then an immediate review of the risk control measures in place should be carried out to identify the problem and why it occurred. Cost of implementation of the CDM regulations 2007 The HSC has claimed that the CDM regulations are likely to save the construction industry  £2.7 billion, through reduced bureaucracy and a further benefit to the construction industry by up to  £3.2 billion by reduced loss of working time (Joyce, 2007), this however is likely to be the best case scenario, the HSC concluded that in the worst case scenario the introduction of the CDM regulations 2007 could cost the construction industry  £660 million (Joyce, 2007). The financial cost of implementing these measures of prevention through the CDM regulations may be regarded as costly to the industry; however it is the authors opinion the benefit of implementing theses regulations successfully and reducing the number of fatalities and accidents on construction sites is a small price to pay as it benefits the industry as a whole by the factors outlined below. This view is supported by Robert E McKee who commented that â€Å"Safety is, without doubt, the most crucial investment we can make, And the question is not what it costs us, but what it saves†. 4.6 Benefits of accident prevention The measures identified in section 4.1 above highlight the main factors that can assist in preventing accidents and fatalities on construction sites. The implementations of measures to prevent accidents are extremely worthwhile as they provide a number of benefits to the construction industry which are discussed below. 6.6.1 Cost in human suffering The cost in human suffering, physical pain and hardship resulting from death and disability is impossible to quantify (Holt, 2001). The accident and fatality statistics analyzed in chapter 3 provide the author with background knowledge that there are an alarming amount of accidents and fatalities within the construction industry each year. This is likely to have had a significant impact on the lives of workers and their families causing a considerable amount of disruption. This is one of the major reasons why these statistics need to be reduced and try to achieve a safer construction industry. 6.6.2 Moral Moral reasons stem from a developing public awareness that something needs to be done to raise the quality of life within the construction industry (Holt, 2001). It is becoming increasingly evident that the safety of workers within the construction industry is being put at risks for reasons such as potential increased profits. It is of the author’s opinion that this is morally wrong and should be prevented which in turn will benefit the construction industry as a result of fewer accidents. In order to increase workers moral within the industry (Holt, 2001) workers should be actively involved in accident prevention programmes, this is likely to increase the productivity of work and prevent weakened worker moral through a reduction in accidents on site. 6.6.3 Legal Legal reasons are contained in state law, which details steps to be taken and objectives to be met, and which carries the threat of prosecution or other enforcement action as a consequence of failure to comply (Holt, 2001). The prevention of fatalities is likely to reduce legal action faced by organizations which in turn is likely to reduce cost in terms of money and adverse publicity as there will be a reduction in the number of workers able to gain compensation. 6.6.4 Financial The benefit of accident prevention is likely to have a significant impact on financial reasons which will ensure the continuing financial health of a business and avoid the costs associated with accidents (Holt, 2001). These costs can be both direct cost such as production delays which include the cost of compensation as well as indirect costs such as management time spent on investigations and fines. Conclusion of chapter The analysis of measures to reduce accident and fatalities on construction sites along with the benefits that these measures bring, highlight the fact that a good safety record and document safety management systems can more than repay the time spent of achieving it. A reduction in accidents and fatalities through increased measures to prevent them will significantly reduce the problems identified in section 6.6 and therefore significantly benefit the construction industry as a whole. This chapter highlights many control systems and mechanisms that are in place to decrease the chances of accident and injuries within the construction industry, however Chapter Four: Methodology This chapter discusses the different methodological approaches for this study and expands on the outline methodology highlighted in chapter 1. Detailed accounts of the specific research strategies are also examined, highlighting the methods used to analyze and interpret the data collected. Each question chosen for the questionnaire will be examined stating why it was chosen, what it hoped to achieve, and how it relates to the research aim and objectives. Finally, the location of the study and methodological restrictions are also considered. Approach Several methodologies to assess the effectiveness, success and problems of CDM regulations have been used in the past, notably sample groups, influence network models, case studies and statistical analysis (reference). The case study approach analyses a very small number of duty holders using semi-structured surveys, and over a number of periods (e.g. quote people and times). Although this methodology can be detailed, results can be extremely unrepresentative. Resultantly, the sample group methodology was chosen for this study, which follows the same layout, but with a much larger number of duty holders. Academics such as (reference) and (reference) have used this type of methodology in the past. The sample group methodology was most appropriate for this study, as data was needed from multiple different duty holders in order to make comparisons and generalizations. Using influence network models was deemed less appropriate than a sample technique as this tended to concentrate on influences for poor health and safety rather than the effectiveness of the CDM Regulations 2007. Criteria for evaluating effectiveness In order to gain useful information it was important to understand what the outcome would be compared to (Moore, 2000), therefore, at this stage the ultimate outcome for measuring the effectiveness of the revised CDM regulations would be to measure the impact they have had on accident statistics on construction sites. This measure however takes a long period of time for changes to manifest themselves and enable a comparison to that of the CDM regulations 1994. As the introduction of the CDM regulations 2007 only came into force in April 2007, a number of different measures have been implemented throughout this study in order to measure the early effectiveness of the new CDM regulations. Table 7.1 below shows the steps taken with the required source of evidence to indicate that an early impact has been made. Effectiveness means the capability of producing an effect (www.wikepidia.org) and in this case, it can be assumed that with reference to this study the intended effect of the CDM regulations is to reduce accident statistics on construction sites. Table 7.1 Impact outcome of the revised CDM Regulations Step Outcome measure Indicative evidence of outcome 1 Duty holder awareness that CDM regulations have been revised Events and articles to launch the revised CDM Regulations 2 Duty holder obtains information about revised CDM Regulations Sales and downloads of the revised CDM regulations and guidance material 3 Duty holder acts internally on contents of revised CDM regulations Duty holder acknowledges clarity in the regulations and better known what is expected of them 4 Improvements in management and design practice appear Positive duty holder views on the improved flexibility in the fit of the revised CDM regulations to a wide range of contractual arrangements. Improved information flow including from the clients. Improved competence assessments. Improved communication, cooperation and coordination between duty holders. Improved health and safety files. Reduced bureaucracy and paperwork. Clients committed to ensuring the safe management of projects. Coordinators are perceived as adding value. 5 Improvements in risk management through good design apparent in specifications and drawings. More on-site hazards are eliminated and thus appear less frequently on drawings / specifications. More resid

Child Abuse in America :: Violence Against Children

  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The effects of child abuse can be long lasting or maybe even fatal. â€Å"The National Center on Child Abuse and Neglect estimates that 2.9 million children are abused or neglected by parents or caretakers each year† (â€Å"Child Abuse† Encarta). This fact is very disturbing to the many of us that don’t know child abuse was this common in the U.S. There are various types of child abuse. Physical abuse, which is deliberate acts of violence that injure or may even kill a child. Sexual abuse occurs when adults use children for their sexual gratification. Emotional abuse is mostly verbal abuse. When the adult puts the children down by calling them names or just screaming at the child for no apparent reason. Another form of child abuse is Physical neglect. This type of abuse involves the parents’ failure to provide for the child’s needs. â€Å" Among the cases of abuse reported, 52 percent involved physical abuse or emotional neglect, 24.5 percent involved physical abuse, 12.6 percent involved sexual abuse, 4.5 percent involved emotional abuse, and 17.3 percent involved other abuses, such as educational neglect or abandonment† (â€Å"Child Abuse† Encarta). Many people have difficulty understanding why any person would want to hurt a child. â€Å"The public often assumes that the people that abuse their children suffer from a mental illness but fewer than 10 percent of abusers have mental illnesses† (â€Å"Child Abuse† Encarta). There is more room for abuse in a family when the parents or caretakers are of a young age or just have very little patients. Mature adults that are raising kids tend not to abuse their children because they are able to cope with the demands of their children and the other stresses around them. â€Å"Child abuse results from a complex combination on personal, social, and cultural factors. These may be grouped into four primary categories: (1) intergenerational transmission of violence, (2) social stress, (3) social isolation and low community involvement, and (4) family structure† (â€Å"Child Abuse† Encarta). Interim transmission of violence is displayed when the abused children become abusive parents. â€Å"Some studies have shown that 30 percent of abused children become abusive themselves and others show that most of the abused do not become abusive adults† (â€Å"Child Abuse† Britannica). Social stress is a common cause of child abuse in a family. The conditions of social stress include unemployment, illness, poor housing conditions, a large family, death of a family member or close friend, or maybe even the presence of a new baby or a disabled person in the home. Child Abuse in America :: Violence Against Children   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The effects of child abuse can be long lasting or maybe even fatal. â€Å"The National Center on Child Abuse and Neglect estimates that 2.9 million children are abused or neglected by parents or caretakers each year† (â€Å"Child Abuse† Encarta). This fact is very disturbing to the many of us that don’t know child abuse was this common in the U.S. There are various types of child abuse. Physical abuse, which is deliberate acts of violence that injure or may even kill a child. Sexual abuse occurs when adults use children for their sexual gratification. Emotional abuse is mostly verbal abuse. When the adult puts the children down by calling them names or just screaming at the child for no apparent reason. Another form of child abuse is Physical neglect. This type of abuse involves the parents’ failure to provide for the child’s needs. â€Å" Among the cases of abuse reported, 52 percent involved physical abuse or emotional neglect, 24.5 percent involved physical abuse, 12.6 percent involved sexual abuse, 4.5 percent involved emotional abuse, and 17.3 percent involved other abuses, such as educational neglect or abandonment† (â€Å"Child Abuse† Encarta). Many people have difficulty understanding why any person would want to hurt a child. â€Å"The public often assumes that the people that abuse their children suffer from a mental illness but fewer than 10 percent of abusers have mental illnesses† (â€Å"Child Abuse† Encarta). There is more room for abuse in a family when the parents or caretakers are of a young age or just have very little patients. Mature adults that are raising kids tend not to abuse their children because they are able to cope with the demands of their children and the other stresses around them. â€Å"Child abuse results from a complex combination on personal, social, and cultural factors. These may be grouped into four primary categories: (1) intergenerational transmission of violence, (2) social stress, (3) social isolation and low community involvement, and (4) family structure† (â€Å"Child Abuse† Encarta). Interim transmission of violence is displayed when the abused children become abusive parents. â€Å"Some studies have shown that 30 percent of abused children become abusive themselves and others show that most of the abused do not become abusive adults† (â€Å"Child Abuse† Britannica). Social stress is a common cause of child abuse in a family. The conditions of social stress include unemployment, illness, poor housing conditions, a large family, death of a family member or close friend, or maybe even the presence of a new baby or a disabled person in the home.

The Anthropic Prohibition on Preemptive Warfare Between States :: War Wars World Politics Essays

The Anthropic Prohibition on Preemptive Warfare Between States When considering the pre-emptive strategic approach, it is useful to reduce hypothetical scenarios to a humanly comprehensible level. War, natural disasters, and other events of this magnitude are beyond a mind’s comprehension in their totality. By using a domestic analogy, such as advocated by Christian Wolff, where â€Å"states are regarded as individual free persons living in a state of nature,† the moral and legal implications of pre-emptive actions can be seen more clearly (Jus Gentium Methodo Scientifica Pertractatum,  §2, p.9). The advent of pre-emption has coincided with an explosion of non-state actors on the military stage, and it is therefore important to expand the analogy beyond states; the analogy is otherwise only applicable to nations in a macroscopic political arena, such as existed before World War I. This paper will expand Wolff’s conception of the domestic analogy to embrace and differentiate state actors and non-state actors, and use this e xpanded principle to produce scenarios in consideration of pre-emption. The examination of these scenarios will yield that preemption is a morally wrong military strategy between states, though state interaction with non-sovereign actors is far more ambiguous. We can extend the domestic analogy of Wolff, to make a general anthropic principle (human-like principle), which states that any group of people, whether a state or an organization, can be made analogous to one person. Both states and organizations have governing bodies composed of people, and these bodies make individual decisions, which in turn affect larger groups of people. Though it is more difficult to reconcile many competing individuals vying for a specific decision or policy within one organization, this can be represented as competing elements of a human mind, such as emotion and reason or desire and conscience. Usually, a conflict between elements is resolved in some manner and a decisive moment occurs, whether it is an individual or an organization. This anthropic principle can continue farther in analogy and embrace more unorthodox situations as well. A state thrown into anarchy, without any discernable authority, is similar to some mental disorders, where competing elem ents in the mind eliminate the faculties of reason. The actions of terrorist organizations, nations, independence movements, and any other artificial construct to group people can all be compared to the actions of one individual person for ethical examination. This is an important acknowledgement, because the Al Aqsa Martyrs brigade, the Tamil Tigers, al Quaeda, and the Irish Republican Army are all significant players in the current geopolitical stage: global politics are not limited to state entities.